Unit 3 provided a lot of useful and thought-provoking information regarding commonly practiced methodologies applicable to qualitive research. The discussion that follows will include:
Part 1: Revised summary of original post integrating relevant feedback from peers and instructor, as well as insights gained from participation.
Part 2: Reflections on the summaries of the methodologies posted by my peers.
Part 3: Reflections on the approach chosen that is most appropriate and productive for my research question.
Part 1:
“Not everything that can be counted counts,
and not everything that counts can be counted.”
~ Albert Einstein
Chapter 24 of Researching Society and Culture begins with a definition and discussion of content and text analysis as a method of qualitative research. The basis of this methodology is analyzing text data to determine how often certain words, phrases, categories, ideas, or emerging themes appear, and/or how much text space is devoted to each. Tests of reliability and validity of the counts involved in the content analyses can be supported by such calculations as the kappa statistic. Content analysis “potentially has a high degree of validity and reliability in terms of precise sampling, providing clear empirical evidence for research findings, and in allowing for replication and generalisation” (Seale & Tonkiss, 2018, p. 404). Data collection following accepted ethical practices is another important consideration. Individuals participating in the study should be assured that their privacy and anonymity will be protected, and that any further concerns or personal risks are addressed.
In preparation for analyses to proceed, data collected in relation to the research topic (or a suitable sample) is coded. Data coding involves using either predetermined categories of interest to the researcher, or categories that develop from reading the text data. The kappa statistic can provide a measure of inter-rater reliability when multiple coders are assigning categories.
Computer software can be used to help lessen the labour-intensive process of coding by searching texts as an efficient and accurate way of “producing keyword lists and word frequencies, identifying main ideas, analysing patterns of word use, comparing vocabulary between texts, and producing full concordances that list and count all words that appear in a text and then enable the context of particular words to be explored” (Seale & Tonkiss, 2018, p. 407). This large amount of computerized information is available to the researcher to help make informed decisions about coding categories, and to proceed with analyzing and interpreting content.
Content analysis can be much more than just counting words and placing them in categories. Interpretation of how the various categories inform the researcher guide their inquiry towards finding meanings and understandings of how they can be related and integrated to form answers to the research question. Computer-assisted methods can help in this phase of the study as well.
Researchers with advanced computer skills, and dealing with large amounts of text, may choose to utilize key word analysis. “Keyword analysis exploits both the widespread availability of large volumes of electronic text as material for analysis, and the power of personal computers” (Seale & Tonkiss, 2018, p. 415). Such applications of computerized treatment of data and searching for meanings in the data is the basis of text mining. Computer programs such as Wordsmith Tools, Wordstat and dictionary-based software extend the capability and scope of text mining. Content analysis of texts is greatly enhanced by the use of such programs. Computer assisted coding of images is much more complicated. “Many of the principles and procedures used to carry out content analyses of texts can be applied to images as well, although clearly automated word counts cannot easily be transferred to the analysis of images” (Seale & Tonkiss, 2018, pp. 412-413). From a personal point of view, examining images, and noting any features that inform my research question would be a preferable approach to coding and analyzing images.
My further refined research question is: What positive outcomes might be realized through integrating visual arts within the post-secondary curriculum of History, Mathematics and Science? As I plan to use student feedback surveys, journal articles, course syllabi, coded images, and interview transcripts in my research, I can see how content analysis could be a methodology for me to follow. Material can be re-examined and recoded in the same way interview participants can be reinterviewed to look for further insights and emerging trends. I may also try some computer-assisted technology in the coding of my research data—especially if I locate a program that has an effective method for coding images.
Part 2:
Reflecting on the summaries of the methodologies posted by my peers, I gained a basic understanding of each methodology and its applicability to my own research question. Below I will briefly outline each methodology, and describe how it relates to my research question.
Doing Historical and Documentary Research involves searching through archives to locate authentic primary sources, enhancing the reliability of the data collected. A wealth of additional data from sources such as historical documents, official records, and individual correspondence, all contribute to an understanding of the research. I strongly believe that examining the past teaches us much about the present and the future. Historical data, for example, provides background information regarding the long tradition of art as a way of educating people. “Art history emerged as a recognisable academic discipline around 1850…art came to be seen as the embodiment of a distinctive expression of particular societies and civilizations (Hatt & Klonk, 2006, p. 21). Examining historical accounts of art history and its purpose may serve to clarify how integrating the two disciplines of art and history enhances the learning values of both.
Semiology and Rhetoric investigates the deconstruction of texts to reveal a more complete understanding of word meanings, the linguistic practices of semiology, and the tendency of rhetorical flourishes in written texts to create multiple meanings, rather than the intended meaning of the text. A limited application of the process of deconstruction, alongside other methodologies, might contribute to a more complete understanding of my text data.
An Application of Two-Eyed Seeing: Indigenous Research Methods with Participatory Action Research discusses the practice of bringing together indigenous worldviews with western ways of understanding the world. The metaphor of one eye examining indigenous ways of understanding the world, and the other eye focusing on western patterns of thought gives researchers a method for creating an inclusive environment through which to carry out their research inquiry. Ensuring participants with varying views of the world have a voice in the carrying out of the research is a value that would contribute to the inclusivity of my research.
Discourse Analysis places emphasis on analyzing language in such a way that words used should consider the characteristics and social context of the audience being addressed. As Tonkiss states in her concluding sentence, “an attention to the way that language is put to work is a useful tool for any reader or researcher who wants to think critically about social research processes and to evaluate research findings” (2018, p. 492). Technical explanations may be useful to some participants, while alternative terminology may convey the same message in a more suitable format to others. Careful analysis of the data collected must consider whether it reflects the social context of the participants. I feel that discourse analysis can be a supporting methodology in combination with other research approaches.
Gender, Race and Justification: The Value of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) in Contemporary Settler Colonial Contexts added to my understanding of how language is used in a social context. Critical discourse analysis acts as a framework for social researchers to examine the relationships between language, power, and ideology. By analyzing and interpreting the language used from all participants involved in the discourse, problems and social inequities can often be revealed, addressed, and rectified. This framework may be of value to my research in that its focus on inclusivity creates an awareness that all voices must be heard, and the implications of the discourse fully understood.
Doing Ethnography details the intricacies of how a participant observer carrying out research as a trusted individual of the study community has a real opportunity to gather authentic data of how people live their daily lives. When data collection becomes covert, rather than overt, research ethics may be compromised. Such a breach of ethics can be mitigated by the researcher maintaining respectful, trusting, and open relationship with the community during the research.
Philosophical Hermeneutics: A Tradition with Promise describes a methodology based on interpretation and understanding of biblical texts and historical documents, expanded to the studies of the early Greek philosophers whose interpretations of the world have been relevant through the ages, and are still studied today—a concept that has its roots in ancient Greece and biblical times is still used in contemporary research. In combination with other methodologies, data gathered relating to my research question may be critically analyzed and interpreted, leading to an understanding of how the information applies to my question. It is interesting that early hermeneutic understandings educated others in a similar way that painters, storytellers, and balladeers passed on knowledge to future generations.
Narrative Analysis and Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis outlines two similar, but unique, modern methodologies being developed and used in recent qualitative studies. Narrative analysis is based on the researcher collecting, interpreting and analyzing stories. The investigation leaves the stories intact, not broken down into smaller units, as with many other approaches to analyses. “…narrative is a basic human way of making sense of the world” (Griffin & May, 2018, p. 513). Along with the fact that stories evolve and change with each retelling, a wealth of material is available for the researcher to understand the social context and power structure of what the stories are saying, and “can be used to show us how experiences are reconstructed and interpreted once they have occurred” (Griffin & May, 2018, p. 513). Interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) is related in many ways to narrative analysis. Like the phenomenological philosophers, the IPA researchers are interested in the understanding and interpretation of how an individual experiences life. Like narrative analysis, IPA uses interviews and stories left intact in their investigations. It occurs to me that both methods illustrate how past practices, like the long tradition of storytelling in communicating life experiences, can inform the way we search for present-day understanding. Works of art tell their own stories and reflect the life-views of the artists, creating a visual narrative which can be analyzed and interpreted to reach an understanding of the overall meaning of a piece and how it relates to the social context of its time.
Toward an Integrated Approach to Narrative Generation: Emerging Research and Opportunities integrates narrative analysis with recent developments and applications of artificial intelligence (AI). Storytelling through the ages has often served as an important method of communicating knowledge, traditions, social norms, and cultural identity—a framework for a shared worldview. Interviewing will be a part of my approach, and interviews will ultimately elicit narratives. Using AI to analyze narratives is similar to the use of computer programs aiding a researcher in content analysis. However, as a novice researcher, I would feel more comfortable carrying out the analysis and interpretation myself.
The Theory, Practice, and Evaluation of the Phenomenological Method as a Qualitative Research Procedure describes a philosophically based qualitative research methodology. The description of an experience and its interpretation should be focused on the view of the subject experiencing the phenomenon without external influences or expectations of the researcher or the situation. Although aspects of this methodology may prove valuable to my research, especially in keeping me aware that my analysis must reflect the subjects’ opinions and ideas without searching exclusively for some desired result, I ultimately do not feel this method is a viable fit, as my question contradicts the principle that “the researcher is not looking for the presence or absence of some predetermined criteria” (Georgi, 1997).
Phenomenology and the Practice of Science voices the concerns of some social scientists regarding the application of the philosophy as a qualitative research methodology, such as variations and ambiguities in methodology, and inconsistencies in adhering to phenomenological principles. “The conclusion reached is that the methodical errors are due to violations of principles of good science and the modifications are not consistent with the phenomenological perspective” (Giorgi, 1997, p. 3). The philosophical theory of phenomenology would heighten my awareness that the data collected reflects the participants' interpretations of an experience. However, I would be hesitant to base my research on a method that may need more consistently applied principles.
Part 3:
I feel the methodology most appropriate and productive for my research is Content and Text Analysis, supplemented by aspects from An Application of Two-Eyed Seeing: Indigenous Research Methods with Participatory Action Research. As I described in Part 1, I plan to use student feedback surveys, journal articles, course syllabi, coded images, and interview transcripts in my research. Material can be re-examined and recoded in the same way interview participants can be reinterviewed to look for further insights and emerging trends. I may also try some computer-assisted technology in the coding of my research data—especially if I locate a program that has an effective method for coding images. As I stated in Part 2, I value inclusivity, and ensuring participants with varying worldviews have a voice in the research process. Ultimately, as my research progresses, I will remain open to incorporating ideas and aspects from some or all of the methodologies.
References:
Agrey, L. G. (2014). Philosophical Hermeneutics: A Tradition with Promise. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), pp. 188-192.
de Man, P. (1973). Semiology and Rhetoric. Diacritics, 3(3), 27-33.
Gidley, B. (2018). Chapter 16: Doing historical and documentary research. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching society and culture (4th ed.; pp. 285-303). SAGE.
Giorgi, A. (1997). The Theory, Practice, and Evaluation of the Phenomenological Method as a Qualitative Research Procedure. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 235-260.
Giorgi, A. (2010). Phenomenology and the Practice of Science. Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, Vo. 21, No. 1, pp. 3-22.
Griffin, A., & May, V. (2018). Chapter 29: Narrative Analysis and Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching Society and Culture (4th ed.; pp. 511-531). SAGE.
Hatt, M. & Klonk, C. (2006). Art history: a critical introduction to its methods. Manchester University Press.
Hodes, C. (2018). Gender, Race and Justification: The Value of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) in Contemporary Settler Colonial Contexts. Journal of International Women's Studies, 19(3), 71+.
Ogata, T. (2020). Toward an Integrated Approach to Narrative Generation: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global.
Peltier, C. (2018). An Application of Two-Eyed Seeing: Indigenous Research Methods with Participatory Action Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 17 (pp. 1-12).
Seale, C. & Tonkiss, F. (2018). Chapter 24: Content and Text Analysis. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching Society and Culture. (4th ed.; pp. 403-427). SAGE.
Seale, C. & Tonkiss, F. (2018). Chapter 27: Discourse Analysis. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching Society and Culture (4th ed.; pp. 477-492). SAGE.
Study Guide, MAIS 602 Moodle.
Walsh, D., & Seale, C. (2018). Chapter 14: Doing Ethnography. In C. Seale (Ed.), Researching Society and Culture (4th ed.; pp. 257-273). SAGE.
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